Iran vs. Iraq

1988 - 2003

Core issue: Political antagonism between the Iraqi and Iranian governments,
and territorial disputes over the province of Khuzestan and the Shatt al-Arab river

Type of conflict ending: Peaceful thawing

The Iran-Iraq war was initiated on September 22, 1980, after Iraq's invasion of Iran. With the attack, Saddam Hussein intended to seize the Iranian province of Khuzestan and the east bank of the Shatt
al-Arab River. Contributing to the decision was also Saddam's distrust of Iran's post-1979 government.
By 1982, Iran had been able to recapture the territories occupied by Iraq, whose forces withdrew.
For the next few years, the conflict took place along the borders of the countries until a ceasefire was agreed in August 1988.

The conflict should be contextualized by the historical hostilities between Arabs and Persians in the region, and it is said to have also been fueled by Saddam Hussein's personal antagonism toward the new government of Iran (also toward Ayatollah Khomeini). In Saddam's calculation, Iraq had an advantage in comparison to Iran, for its government was fairly new and its armed forces were still being re-structured. This "window of opportunity" was harnessed by Iraq to invade Iran. On the Iranian side, the rhetoric against Iraq was growing in the months before the conflict broke out, however its military capabilities were not sufficient to initiate a first-strike attack.

Iraq's invasion of Iran was conducted through the southern borders of the countries, more specifically through the province of Khuzestan. The invasion initially consisted of air attacks against Iran's air forces, with the occupation of the province following. Saddam's expectation that the majority Arab population
of Khuzestan would support Iraq's offensive did not materialize. Iran's resistance was based on its armed forces, backed by the Revolutionary Guards and voluntary civilian troops. In 1981, the conflict was mainly
in a stalemate, with occasional breakouts of military confrontation happening along the border. By 1982, Iran's forces were strong enough to launch a counteroffensive, forcing Iraq's troops to withdraw from
Iranian territory. A ceasefire was offered by Iraq but was rejected by the Iranian side, which was preparing for the invasion of its neighbor.

Iran's invasion of Iraq was shortlived as the latter was considerably prepared to resist the attack. Soon, Iran's forces were unable to carry out their offensive and suffered critical drawbacks due to Iraq's use of chemical weapons against its forces. By this point of the conflict, major regional and world powers had claimed their support for one or other of the sides, most importantly the United States and the Soviet Union supported Iraq, and China's supported Iran.

Throughout the following years, the conflict persisted, with occasional attacks from each side. In 1984
and 1987, the disputes extended to maritime trade routes with both sides attacking one another's oil tankers. The "tanker war" caused the United States to threaten to join the conflict. Further, Saudi Arabia became involved when it shot down an Iranian aircraft over the Persian Gulf. As a consequence, oil tankers were offered escorts and secure passage of the waterways.

After years of fighting without much progress on either side, and with high death tolls accumulating
for both parties, Iran shifted its position and finally accepted the ceasefire previously offered by Iraq.
The ceasefire was offered on the same terms as in 1982. It was brokered by the United Nations and followed Security Council Resolution 598 calling for an end to hostilities, condemning the disrespect
for humanitarian law and the Geneva Protocol, and suggesting UN participation in brokering talks between both governments. In 1988, after Iran and Iraq's acceptance of the Resolution, the United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (UNIIMOG) was deployed to the region to observe and guarantee the cessation
of violence and the withdrawal of forces. The ceasefire would come into effect on August 20, 1988.

After almost two years of talks, and mainly because of Iraq's concession, both countries came to
an informal agreement to reestablish the previous terms of the 1975 Treaty Concerning the State Frontier and Neighbourly Relations between Iran and Iraq. This move was followed by the normalization
of diplomatic relations, an agreement on the use of the Shatt al-Arab River and an agreement concerning
a prisoner exchange, which was only finalized in 2003. The conflict resolution process is considered
as peaceful thawing.

Sources

Blake, G.H. and M. Khadduri, 2019. "Iraq" (Encyclopédia Britannica, October 7, 2019) <https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq/The-Persian-Gulf-War> accessed November 6, 2019

Chubin, S., 1989. "The Last Phase of the Iran-Iraq War: From Stalemate to Ceasefire" Third World Quarterly, 11 (2), 1-14.

Ferretti, M.J., 2013. "The Iran-Iraq War: United Nations Resolution of Armed Conflict", (Villanova University Charles Widger School of Law Digital Repository, March 2, 2013) <https://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/vlr/vol35/iss1/3/> accessed November 5, 2019

Lesaffer, R., 2019. "The Iran-Iraq Border: A Story of Too Many Treaties" (Oxford Public International Law) <https://opil.ouplaw.com/page/iran-iraq-border> accessed November 6, 2019

Szczepanski, K., 2018. "The Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988" (ThoughtCo, August 18, 2018) <https://www.thoughtco.com/the-iran-iraq-war-1980-1988-195531> accessed November 5, 2019

"The Origins, Conduct, and Impact of the Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988", 2011. (Wilson Center, September 23, 2011) <https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-origins-conduct-and-impact-the-iran-iraq-war-1980-1988> accessed November 7, 2019

"UNITED NATIONS IRAN-IRAQ MILITARY OBSERVER GROUP (UNIIMOG)", 2003. (United Nations, 2003) <https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/past/uniimog.htm> accessed November 6, 2019